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Punctuation

 These rules govern the use of punctuation, the use of spacing, conventional signs and certain typographic devices as aids to the understanding and correct reading of text.

The general rule

Use as little punctuation as necessary while retaining the meaning of the sentence.

Plain English is key.

Apostrophes

To indicate possession

Use 's after singular nouns, plural nouns which do not end in s and indefinite pronouns.

Use just ' after plural nouns ending in s.

If a name already ends in s or z and would be difficult to pronounce if 's were added to the end, consider rearranging the sentence to avoid the difficulty.

In compound nouns and where multiple nouns are linked to make one concept, place the apostrophe at the end of the final part (and match it to that noun).

Do not use an apostrophe in its with the meaning "belonging to it" (this is analogous with his/hers/theirs). Note that it's is a contraction of "it is".

Some place and street names have an apostrophe and some don't - this can't be predicted and must be checked.

Use apostrophes with noune phrases denoting periods of time (use an apostrophe if you can replace the apostrophe with "of").

But do not use an apostrophe in adjectival phrases.

To indicate that letters have been omitted (contractions)

Use an apostrophe in the position the omitted letters would have occupied, not where the space was between the original words.

Do not use an apostrophe before contractions accepted as words in their own right.

Do not use an apostrophe to make a plural, even with a word/phrase that is not usually written in the plural or which appears clunky.

To clarify something which will look odd if an s is added, consider placing it in quotation marks. Avoid this if you can, but presented with no other options it will help with clarity.

Brackets

Round brackets ( )

Avoid the use of round brackets as much as possible. In sentences with parenthetical statements - like this one - use dashes instead of round brackets.

Use round brackets when you need to provide an expansion or clarification rather than an aside.

You should also use round brackets when using an acronym for the first time to define it.

Using other punctuation with brackets

Include full stops/exclamation marks/question marks/quotation marks before the close bracket only if the complete sentence/quote is in brackets. Otherwise, punctuate after the closing bracket.

Square brackets [ ]

Use only to enclose comments, corrections, reference or translations made by a subsequent author or editor.

Angle brackets < > and curly brackets { }

These are used only for technical purposes - only use them if you are sure they are appropriate. Never use them in any other contexts.

Bullet points

Bulleted lists follow a colon. If the sentence before the colon and the bullets after it form a continuous sentence, each line should start with a lower-case letter and there should be no full stops, colons or semi colons.

If the bullets do not follow on in a continuous sentence, each line should start with an upper-case letter and there should be no full stops, colons or semicolons.

Colons and semicolons

Avoid the use of colons and semicolons wherever possible.

It is preferable to rewrite a sentence if a semicolon is needed. However, there are situations in which they are required, and meaning would be lost if the sentence were restructured.

Use a colon to introduce a subclause which follows logically from the text before it, is not a new concept and depends logically on the preceding main clause.

Do not use a colon if the two parts of the sentence are not logically connected.

Use a semicolon to link two related parts of a sentence, neither of which depends logically on the other and each of which could stand alone as a grammatically complete sentence.

Use semicolons in place of commas in a complicated list or sentence if it will improve clarity, particularly if list items already include commas.

Commas

Use a pair of commas to surround a non-defining clause (one which adds descriptive information but which can be removed without losing the meaning of the sentence) – note that only “which” or “who” can be used in this type of clause, not “that”.

Do not use commas to surround a defining clause (which cannot be removed without losing the meaning of the sentence) – note that “which” or “who” can be replaced by “that” in this type of clause.

Use commas to surround a non-defining word or phrase (which adds information but could be omitted without changing the sense of the sentence), and follow the non-defining word/phrase with a single comma if it is at the start of the sentence.

Do not use a comma where defining information is used at the start of a sentence.

Do not use a comma to join two main clauses, or those linked by adverbs or adverbial phrases (such as “nevertheless”, “therefore”, “however”). This is sometimes referred to as “comma splicing”. Either use a semicolon or add a coordinating conjunction (such as “and”, “but”, “so”).

Use a comma after an introductory adverb, adverbial phrase or subordinate clause, or use a pair of commas surrounding it if it is in the middle of a sentence.

Do not use a comma after a time-based adverbial phrase.

Use a comma between multiple qualitative adjectives (those which can be used in the comparative/superlative or modified with “very”, “quite” etc).

Do not use a comma between multiple classifying adjectives: absolutes which either are or are not, such as “unique”, “English”, “black” etc (although note that stylistically these can be modified).

Do not use a comma between classifying and qualitative adjectives.

Use a comma between items in a list.

There is no comma between the penultimate item in a list and “and”/”or” unless required to prevent ambiguity – this is sometimes referred to as the “Oxford comma”. However, always insert a comma in this position if it would help prevent confusion.

Dashes and hyphens

Em dashes

The only instances in which an em dash is appropriate are when used to set off the sources of a quote, or between figures to show a range. In all other circumstances use an en dash instead.

Avoid the use of em dashes altogether when writing for an online audience, as they often do not show up correctly on a web page.

En dashes

The middle-length dash. Use in a pair in place of round brackets or commas, surrounded by spaces.

Use singly and surrounded by spaces to link two parts of a sentence, in place of a colon.

Use to link concepts or ranges of numbers, with no spaces either side.

Use between names of joint authors/creators/performers etc to distinguish from hyphenated names of a single person.

Hyphens

Use in a compound adjective before a noun unless the first element is an adverb ending in -ly.

Use a hyphen in an adjectival phrase including a verb participle. Do not include a hyphen in an adjectival phrase following a noun.

Use with prefixes only if required to avoid confusion/mispronunciation, such as where prefixes themselves or letters are repeated.

Use with prefixes before a proper name, number or date.

Use in numbers which are spelt out if required (this should be unusual)

In compass points (unless used geographically rather than as directions)

Do not use hyphens in noun phrases.

Never use a hyphen to make a new compound noun – if it is a recognisable concept, make it one word. If it is not, use two words.

Do not use suspended hyphens when hyphenated adjectives appear with the same last element

Ellipsis...

Use an ellipsis to show that some text is missing,usually from a quotation. Ellipses should be spaced according to whether they indicate text precedes or follows the included text – do not include a space before an ellipsis if it directly follows written text, and do not include a space after an ellipsis if it directly leads into written text.

When an ellipsis is used between sections of included text assume it follows the previous included text rather than preceding the next section.

There is no need to add square brackets around an ellipsis.

Full stops, exclamation marks and question marks

Use one – but only one – of these at the end of every sentence. 

Do not use a full stop at the end of titles, even if they make a sentence, but, if a title ends with an exclamation mark or question mark, do include it.

Do not use a full stop if it will be followed, or preceded, by an ellipsis.

Use a full stop, not a question mark, at the end of a reported question, and use a full stop, not an exclamation mark, at the end of a reported imperative.

Where possible avoid using exclamation marks in text, as it can look unprofessional.

Quotation marks

Use double quotation marks for direct speech or a quote, and single quotation marks for direct speech or a quote within that. Use no quotation marks if the quote is displayed (ie not in line with the rest of the text).

If the quote would have required punctuation in its original form, place the punctuation inside the quotation marks. (If it is unclear try writing the whole sentence out without quotation marks and “he said” and so on, and replicate the resulting punctuation.)

Place any punctuation which does not belong to the quote outside the quotation marks (except closing punctuation if the quote is also the end of the sentence).

 

 

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